Managing Social Cohesion in diverse communities: Can South Africa draw lessons from Finland

Occasional Paper 7/2024

MANAGING SOCIAL COHESION IN DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

Can South Africa draw lessons from Finland? 

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This paper is published jointly by

the  Inclusive Society Institute and

School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University

Inclusive Society Institute PO Box 12609, Mill Street Cape Town, 8010 South Africa 235-515 NPO

School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University PO Box 610 Bellville, 7550 South Africa

Copyright © 2024

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means without the permission in writing from the Inclusive Society Institute and the School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University.

 D I S C L A I M E R

Views expressed in this report do not necessarily represent the views of the

 Inclusive Society Institute or the School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University.

OCTOBER 2024

by

Nicola Jo Bergsteedt

(BA Drama; BA Hons Journ; MA Journ; PGDip Futures Studies)

&

Daryl Swanepoel

Research Fellow, School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University

(ND Co Admin; BPAHons; MPA)

This is the second in a series of three occasional papers on managing social cohesion in diverse communities. They will explore the mechanisms that Singapore, Finland and the United Arab Emirates have deployed in forging socially cohesive societies within their very different environments.  The three papers will ultimately be integrated into a comprehensive synthesis report with the objective of providing a menu of tools for South African policymakers to contemplate for purposes of strengthening their efforts within the South African context.

 Finland istockphoto.com: Stock photo ID:1061449410

 Abstract

The GovDem Survey of the Inclusive Society Institute has revealed that social cohesion in South Africa has not made sufficient progress post-Apartheid. In fact, the level of cohesion has declined of late, reversing the early gains made at the onset of the democratic order ushered in in 1994. This is worrying given the need for cohesion to underpin peace and security, and economic growth in a country, both of which are at worryingly levels in South Africa.

This occasional paper has as its objective the development of a menu of policy interventions aimed at advancing social cohesion, that the policymakers in South Africa may wish to ponder. The paper forms part of a broader study that explores the practices in other diverse communities, notably Singapore, the United Arab Emirates and Finland. This paper discusses proposals informed by the Finnish case study. It discusses the findings thereof, and advances recommendations for South African policymakers to consider.

1 Introduction

In analysing its extensive 2023 GovDem Survey, the Inclusive Society Institute (ISI), an independent public policy research institute, concluded that thirty years into the new South African dispensation, social cohesion had not advanced to optimal levels. In fact, trends were worrying.

Context

In 1994 South Africa transitioned from Apartheid South Africa, in which the minority white community controlled all political power, to a new democratic dispensation in which universal suffrage ensured that all South African, regardless of race, shared political power in the country. Hopes were high that a rainbow nation could be forged from the divisions of the past (Austin, 2021). South Africa is celebrating its 30 years of democracy during 2024.

In the poll, less than half (48%) of the respondents were of the view that a united nation could be forged out of all the population groups in the country. 31 percent believed it possible. 18 percent did not express a view one way or the other. This sentiment held true across all the major race groups in the country. Only 46 percent of whites believed it feasible, 48% of blacks believed it so, and for Indians and coloureds it was 44 percent and 50 percent respectively (ISI, 2023).

Even more disquieting is the finding that only 39 percent of South Africans believed reconciliation in South Africa is moving in the right direction. This held true across all the race groups, where similar trends existed.

In its definition of social cohesion, the Inclusive Society Institute includes dimensions wider than just race. It also considers religious tolerance, and attitudes towards immigrants, amongst other criteria, as contributors towards social cohesion. The Institute’s South African Social Cohesion Index (SASCI), currently in its development phase, is built on three pillars: demographic integration, extent of connectivity to the country, and sense of community (ISI, 2022). These pillars respond to the three dimensions of social cohesion as argued by Langer et al. (2017), namely inequality, trust and identity.

Figure 1: Social Cohesion Triangle (Langer et al., 2017) 

High levels of inequality, Langer et al. argue, threatens social cohesion in society, in that it erodes relationships, which, in turn, could cause conflict. When trust is missing between members of society, the ability for individuals to collaborate to build the nation is weakened. And a national identity, in contrast to group or ethnic identity, may cause aggressive behaviour amongst members of society to the detriment of stable coexistence.

In South African society, trust amongst the various groups is worryingly high. For example:

• In the same GovDem Survey, only 40 percent of White South Africans completely or somewhat trusted their Black compatriots, and similarly only 41 percent Black South Africans completely or somewhat trusted their White compatriots.

• Only 48 percent of South Africans completely or somewhat trusted people from a different religion to their own.

• Only 43 percent of South Africans completely or somewhat trusted people from different nationalities. Similar trends existed across all the major race groups.

• Of particular concern was the finding that 68 percent of South Africans did not trust immigrants from other African countries. So too, some 66 percent did not trust immigrants from overseas. And likewise, similar trends were registered across all the race groups.

(ISI, 2023)

These disappointingly low levels of trust suggest that, as a nation, in terms of demographic integration, South Africa has a long way to go in consolidating social cohesion in the country.

That said, the ISI survey finds that South Africans are slowly starting to forge a nation. Already, 46 percent of South Africans - with similar trends across all race groups - are in favour of associating with compatriots across racial lines, as opposed to only 31 percent who do not like associating with people from different population groups. And already, 52 percent of South Africans – with a similar trend across all race groups – are socialising (entertaining) with compatriots from across racial lines.

Likewise, some 49 percent of South Africans – with similar trends from across all race groups - do attend the church/shul/mosque/religious services of their fellow South Africans.

And 69% of respondents indicated that they wanted a united South Africa.

In considering the second pillar of the ISI’s SASCI, the extent of connectivity to the country, the findings of the survey were equally disappointing. Nine percent of the respondents indicated that they were seriously considering emigrating to another country in the next year or so. Of particular concern was the number of high-income earners and those with tertiary education. Eleven percent of the high-income earners and those with tertiary qualifications were considering emigration. South Africa is experiencing a critical skills shortage across almost all sectors (Business Tech, 2023). For the country to lose more skills and taxpayers would be quite tragic for the country.

The minority communities are the most vulnerable. Fifteen percent and 14 percent of Whites and Indians respectively were considering emigration, as opposed to 8 percent of Black South Africans.

There were two main reasons driving the sentiment:

• A lack of confidence in the ability of the economy to deliver jobs for themselves and their family, and a sense that South Africa was failing. Twenty-five percent of respondents cited work opportunities as the reason for them contemplating emigration, and only 23 percent were confident that their children will be able to become part of the South African labour market and that they will find a good job.

• A sense that South Africa was failing. Twenty one percent of respondents were of the view that the country was failing. Once again, apart from the Coloured community, it was the minority communities – particularly the Indian community – that were most vulnerable. Twenty-three percent of Whites and 41 percent of Indians cited South Africa’s failure as a state as the reason for them considering emigration.

In considering the third pillar of the ISI’s SASCI, namely a sense of community, a far healthier picture emerged. Seventy-five percent of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that it important to get involved in the community in which they lived, 47 percent agreed or strongly agreed that it was important to actively work for the welfare of their community, and 58 percent said that they actively looked for ways in which they could support people that were less fortunate than themselves. Similar trends were registered across all the race groups.

The survey was however silent as to the extent to which the individual race groups involvement extended across demographic lines.

1.1 About the survey

The aforementioned data is drawn from the Inclusive Society Institute’s GovDem Survey, which forms part of IPSOS’ Khayabus Survey, the methodology of which is illustrated in the diagrams contained in Figure 2 below

Figure 2: The IPSOS Khayabus (ISI, 2023)

Against this backdrop one must ask: Is enough being done to promote, nurture and ensure social cohesion in South African society? The country’s National Development Plan (NDP) after all recognises that the strategy set out therein needs to be underpinned by social cohesion (NPC, N.d.).

The NDP argues that “leaders throughout society have to balance the power they hold with responsibility, including…promoting social cohesion”, and that it is necessary to broaden social cohesion and unity while redressing the inequities of the past. “South Africa’s own history and the experiences of other countries”, it says, “show that unity and social cohesion are necessary to meet social and economic objectives”. It also argues that social cohesion in society is necessary to narrow the inequality divide (NPC, N.d.).

The NDP is correct, because in socially cohesive societies, where there is a general absence of underlying social conflict, people work together as one towards the well-being of all in society. It works against exclusion and marginalisation, creates a sense of belonging, promotes trust, and offers its people the opportunity of upward mobility (SFRI, N.d.). It enables people to be engaged in “a common enterprise”, wherein they can face shared challenges as members of the same community (Maxwell, in SFRI. N.d.). It allows society to share equitably in its prosperity, because cohesive societies are politically stable, thereby allowing them to focus on economic growth (Bris, 2014).

It is therefore encouraging that the National Planning Commission recently proposed the establishment of a Social Cohesion and Reconciliation Council with the objective of developing and monitoring strategies for the promotion of tolerance and the embracing of diversity …for the emergence of a shared South Africa identity and pride” (NPC, 2023).

Some progress has been made in setting up the structures and mechanisms to advance the goal of social cohesion in South Africa.

The Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRL Rights Commission) has been established in terms of Chapter 9 of the South African Constitution. The primary objectives of the CRL Commission is “(a) to promote respect for the rights of cultural, religious and linguistic communities; (b) to promote and develop peace, friendship, humanity, tolerance and national unity among cultural, religious and linguistic communities, on the basis of equality, non-discrimination and free association; and (c) to recommend the establishment or recognition, in accordance with national legislation, of a cultural or other council or councils for a community or communities in South Africa” (RSA, 1996).

Since its establishment the CRL Commission has tackled several topics that impede social cohesion. The full list of reports contained on the CRL Commission’s official website include:

• The commercialisation of religion and the abuse of people’s belief systems.

• Challenges that lead to deaths and injuries at initiation schools in South Africa;

• The reuse  of graves by local governments: Seeking a solution to the violation of cultural and religious rights of communities through the reuse of graves by local governments;

• Ukuthwala (the abduction that involves kidnapping a girl or a young woman by a man and his friends or peers to compel the girl or young woman's family to endorse marriage negotiations).

• The use of official languages by organs of state.

• Violations of religious rights by members/congregants of church missions; and

• Civil unrest in Phoenix that allegedly resulted in racially motivated deaths.

(CRL Commission, N.d.)

Scrutinisation of the annual and other reports will suggest that the bulk of the Commission’s work has been limited and reactive in nature. No wonder given that the Commission’s annual budget in the 2021/22 financial year amounted to a mere R46,4 million rand (CRL Commission, N.d.). Given the extent of the work needed to tackle the social cohesion deficit, the commission has not been adequately resourced to properly carry out their work.

So too, the Department of Sport, Arts and Culture (DSAC), is mandated to lead nation building and social cohesion through social transformation, but the unit tasked to carry out this mandate is inadequately resourced. The DSAC social cohesion programme includes activities such as the celebration of national days, advocacy platforms on social cohesion, and community conversations (DSAC, N.d.). The unit tasked with carrying out the social cohesion mandate comprises four members of staff (Anon., 2023) and the annual budget for 2024/5 amounts to mere R59,8 million (Treasury, 2024).

On paper it suggests that the government is committed to securing social cohesion in South Africa. It forms an integral part of the NDP, a constitutionally committed commission has been established to promote and protect the rights of the country’s diverse communities, and DSAC has established programmes aimed at promoting social cohesion in South Africa. The lived reality tells a different story: activities are few and limited in nature, the programmes are wholly under-resourced and as evidenced in the ISI’s GovDem Survey, the level of social cohesion is disappointingly low.

What to do?

There are many other countries around the world that have/are faced/facing social cohesion challenges.  Three come to mind, each with different mechanisms to nurture and promote social cohesion within their societies. These are Singapore, the United Arab Emirates, and Finland, which is the focus of this paper. The Finnish experience may hold lessons for South Africa, the exploration of which is the object of this dissertation.

1.2 Research question and methodology

The departure points of this study, based on the empirical evidence contained in the Inclusive Society Institute’s GovDem Survey, as highlighted in the introductory chapter, is that:

• Social cohesion, of which, in the South African context, nation-building and reconciliation are crucial elements, is not at an acceptable level.

• South Africans desire a united nation in which the different communities that compose the nation can work together to build a common future.

• The South African Constitution places a high premium on a non-discriminatory environment underpinned by social cohesion.

• That all three spheres of government, that is the executive, legislative and judicial spheres, at its heart, recognise and promote the ideals of the Constitution, that is a united and reconciled South Africa culminating in a socially cohesive society.

• That the current structures, programmes and resources allocated by the authorities have not yet – thirty years since the transition from Apartheid - delivered the desired level of social cohesion in South Africa.

It recognises the importance of social cohesion in any society that wishes for harmony, stability and prosperity. Thus, more needs to be done to promote such. What that is, is an open question.

This paper examines the Finnish model for managing diversity and social cohesion. It aims to provide new options for South Africa’s policymakers to contemplate, by identifying a set of practices that do not currently form part of the South African toolset.

2 The Finnish case study - background

Finland has a rich and complex history, having been a province and grand duchy under Swedish rule from the 12th to the 19th centuries. After 1809, it became an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. Finland declared its full independence in 1917. During World War II, Finland managed to defend its sovereignty by cooperating with Germany and fending off Soviet invasions, although it did lose some territory.

Over the following fifty years, Finland transitioned from a predominantly agrarian and forestry-based economy to a diversified, modern industrial economy, with one of the highest per-capita incomes in Western Europe. Finland joined the European Union in 1995 and was the only Nordic country to adopt the euro when the single currency was introduced in January 1999.

In the 21st century, Finland is known for its high-quality education system, strong emphasis on equality, and comprehensive national social welfare system. However, the country faces challenges such as an ageing population and the volatility of its export-driven economy. In response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Finland decided to join NATO, becoming the alliance's 31st member in April 2023 (Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, N.d.).

2.1 Demographic Composition

Finland is often perceived as ethnically homogeneous, with most of the population being ethnic Finns. However, in recent decades, there has been an increase in ethnic diversity due to immigration. As of 2023, the ethnic composition of Finland includes 84.9% Finns, 5.1% Swedish-speaking Finns, 4% Russians, 1% Estonians, and 3% from other ethnic groups (Statistics Finland, 2023).

The historical Swedish presence in Finland is deeply rooted, dating back to the 12th century when Finland became part of the Swedish Kingdom. This period of Swedish rule, which lasted for nearly 700 years until 1809, profoundly influenced Finland’s cultural, legal, and linguistic landscape. Swedish became a dominant language, and many Finnish institutions, including the legal and educational systems, were shaped by Swedish norms and traditions. Even after Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Swedish retained its status as an official language.

Table 1: Ethnic Composition of Finland's Population

Ethnic Group	Percentage
Finns	84.9%
Swedish-speaking Finns	5.1%
Russians	4%
Estonians	1%
Other Ethnic Groups	3%

Source: Statistics Finland, 2023

In 2023, Finland had a relatively high fertility rate for Europe, with about 1.75 children per woman. Finnish women exhibit high labour force participation rates, and their educational attainment surpasses that of Finnish men. Like other Nordic countries, Finland’s family policy emphasises balancing work and family life. Both parents can take an earnings-based allowance to stay home until their baby is about 11 months old. Additionally, Finland offers a publicly subsidised childcare system. Alternatively, parents can opt for home care leave with a flat allowance rate to care for a small child. These benefits have encouraged fathers to take on a greater share of housework and childcare, although women still perform most of the domestic work. In some cases, women have reduced their household burden by outsourcing domestic chores instead of men taking on more responsibilities. Finland maintains high family size ideals compared to other European countries, and childlessness and one-child families are not favoured. The proportion of couples with at least three children has been increasing since the 1970s (CIA, 2023).

Historically, Finland has been a country of emigration. During the 20th century, Finns emigrated in two significant waves. Before World War II, most emigrated to North America, while after the war, many moved to Sweden due to industrialisation and better job opportunities. By the 1980s and early 1990s, Finnish returnees, mainly from Sweden, began to outnumber emigrants. Between April 1990 and 2010, Ingrian Finns—descendants of ethnic Finns who settled near St. Petersburg, Russia, in the 17th century—migrated to Finland under the Right of Return Law. The country has also absorbed immigrants from Russia, Estonia, the former Yugoslavia, and Sweden, often for marriage and family reunification. Additionally, Finland has accepted refugees and asylum seekers from Somalia, Iraq, China, and Thailand, amongst others (CIA, 2023).

4.2 Historical Context

Finland's history is deeply intertwined with Sweden and Russia. In the 12th century, Finland became a part of the Kingdom of Sweden, which lasted until 1809. During this period, Finnish culture and society were significantly influenced by Swedish governance and culture (National Archives of Finland, N.d.).

In 1809, following the Finnish War, Finland was ceded to Russia and became an autonomous Grand Duchy under the Russian Empire. This period saw significant development in Finnish national identity and autonomy, which eventually led to Finland declaring independence from Russia in 1917 amidst the chaos of the Russian Revolution.

2.3 Colonial Influence and Independence

The Swedish period in Finnish history was marked by the establishment of a legal and administrative system that laid the foundations for modern Finnish society. The influence of Swedish language and culture remains significant in Finland, with Swedish being one of the two official languages of the country.

In addition to Finnish and Swedish, the Sami languages are also recognised as official languages in certain regions of Finland. The Sami are the indigenous people of the northern parts of Finland, and their languages, which belong to the Uralic language family, are protected and promoted by Finnish law. The Sami languages have a rich oral tradition and are integral to the cultural identity of the Sami people. Efforts have been made to revitalise these languages, which face challenges due to the small number of speakers and the dominance of Finnish and Swedish. The inclusion of Sami as an official language underscores Finland's commitment to preserving its indigenous heritage and linguistic diversity.

The Russian period brought about significant economic and social changes. The autonomy granted to Finland allowed for the establishment of a separate Finnish government, fostering a sense of national identity. The struggle for independence was fuelled by the growing Finnish nationalism and the political upheavals in Russia during the early 20th century (Klinge, 2018).

2.4 Economic Development

Finland transitioned from an agrarian economy to an industrialised nation during the 20th century. This transformation was supported by significant investments in education and technology, making Finland a global leader in these fields. The development of the welfare state and comprehensive social security systems also played a crucial role in Finland’s economic success (OECD, 2023).

2.5 Post-War Reconstruction and Growth

After World War II, Finland underwent rapid reconstruction and industrialisation. The war had left the country with significant destruction and economic challenges, but the Finnish government's policies focused on rebuilding infrastructure, promoting education, and fostering industrial growth. The establishment of large-scale industries such as forestry, paper, and technology paved the way for economic stability and growth (Hjerppe, 2006).

2.6 Social and Political Development

Post-World War II Finland maintained a policy of neutrality and non-alignment during the Cold War, balancing its relationship between the West and the Soviet Union. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened new economic opportunities, leading to Finland joining the European Union in 1995 (Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, N.d.).

2.7 Welfare State and Education System

One of the cornerstones of Finland's modern society is its comprehensive welfare state, which includes universal healthcare, free education, and extensive social security. These systems were developed gradually throughout the 20th century, significantly improving the quality of life for Finnish citizens and contributing to social cohesion (Kangas & Palme, 2005).

2.8 Modern Finland

Today, Finland is known for its high standard of living, extensive welfare benefits, and one of the best education systems in the world. It consistently ranks high in global comparisons of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, and human development (UNDP, 2023).

2.9 Language identity

Language identity, including whether one is considered a Swedish-speaking Finn or a Finnish-speaking Finn, is primarily shaped by family language and personal choice. Most individuals are designated by the language spoken at home during childhood. This official language registration, recorded in Finland’s Population Information System, determines the language used for government services and communications. Finnish parents typically register their child's mother tongue at birth, but individuals can later change their registered language if they feel more comfortable with another language or relocate to an area where a different language is dominant. This system ensures that citizens have access to public services and education in their preferred language (McRae, 2000).

Moreover, linguistic identity can be fluid in Finland, with many citizens being bilingual, able to speak both Swedish and Finnish. While some may officially identify with one language for administrative purposes, their personal or professional life may involve the use of both languages, underscoring the country’s commitment to bilingualism and linguistic diversity (McRae, 2000).

2.10 Technological and Environmental Innovation

Finland has also positioned itself as a leader in technological innovation and environmental sustainability. Companies such as Nokia have played a pivotal role in the global technology sector, while Finland's commitment to renewable energy and environmental conservation is evident in its policies and practices (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2023).

2.11 Conclusion

Finland’s journey from being a part of the Swedish kingdom to an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia, and finally to an independent republic, has shaped its current identity as a progressive, stable, and prosperous nation.

The transition from Swedish rule to Russian autonomy raised concerns among the Swedish-speaking population, who feared the loss of their language, culture, and influence within Finnish society. These historical concerns gave rise to the need for special arrangements to protect the rights of Swedish speakers, ensuring that Swedish remained one of the official languages of Finland.

This commitment to linguistic and cultural preservation has contributed to Finland's reputation as an inclusive society that values diversity. The country’s ongoing commitment to education, innovation, and social welfare continues to drive its success on the global stage. Finland’s historical experiences and modern achievements offer valuable insights into the development of a resilient and inclusive society.

3 Means taken to promote social cohesion in Finland

Finland has implemented several measures to promote social cohesion, fostering a sense of community and belonging among its diverse population. These measures are particularly focused on integrating both Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns into Finnish society, ensuring inclusivity at government, university, and community levels, including schools.

The study focusses on the following structures that have been put into place to drive social cohesion in Finland;

3.1 Swedish People's Party of Finland (SFP) 

The Swedish People's Party of Finland (SFP) has been a driving force for social cohesion in Finland for over a century. Established in 1906, the SFP was created to represent and protect the interests of the Swedish-speaking population in a predominantly Finnish-speaking nation. However, its role goes far beyond mere representation. The SFP actively works to ensure that Finland remains a bilingual country where Swedish and Finnish speakers can coexist peacefully and equitably. The party's advocacy for bilingualism is not just about preserving the Swedish language; it is about fostering a deeper understanding and respect between the two language groups.

By promoting policies that encourage the use of both languages in public life, education, and government, the SFP helps to bridge cultural divides and build mutual respect. This commitment to bilingualism is a cornerstone of social cohesion in Finland, as it ensures that both language groups can participate fully in society without fear of marginalisation. Moreover, the SFP's broader political agenda, which includes advocating for social equality, environmental sustainability, and economic development, aligns with the values that promote a cohesive society. The party's efforts to address the needs of minority groups, protect civil liberties, and promote social justice contribute to creating a more inclusive society where all citizens, regardless of their language or cultural background, feel valued and empowered (Ollikainen, 2024).

3.1.1 Tangible Examples of the SFP’s Efforts to Promote Bilingualism and Social Cohesion

Education Policy Advocacy:

• Swedish-Language Schools: The SFP has been instrumental in ensuring that Swedish-speaking children have access to education in their mother tongue. This includes supporting and maintaining Swedish-language schools across Finland, from primary to tertiary education levels.

• Bilingual Education Programs: The party has also promoted the establishment of bilingual education programs where both Swedish and Finnish languages are taught, albeit in schools which use either Swedish or Finnish as the language of instruction, thereby allowing students to become proficient in both languages and fostering mutual understanding from a young age.

Cultural Events and Media:

• Swedish Cultural Festivals: The SFP supports and organises cultural festivals that celebrate Swedish heritage, such as the annual Svenska Dagen (Swedish Day), which promotes Swedish language and culture through various events, performances, and community gatherings.

• Support for Swedish-Language Media: The party has advocated for the funding and sustainability of Swedish-language media outlets, such as Yle Fem (the Swedish-language TV channel), to ensure that Swedish speakers have access to news, entertainment, and cultural content in their own language.

Legislative Initiatives:

• Language Act Advocacy: The SFP has been a key player in the development and enforcement of Finland’s Language Act, which ensures that citizens have the right to receive services in both Finnish and Swedish from public authorities. The party continuously monitors the implementation of this act to protect the linguistic rights of Swedish speakers.

• Legal Protections: The SFP has worked to ensure that legislation supports the rights of Swedish speakers in all areas of public life, including healthcare, legal services, and social welfare, where it is essential to provide services in both official languages.

Political Representation and Influence:

• Municipal Representation: The SFP ensures that Swedish-speaking Finns have a voice in local government by actively participating in municipal councils in regions with significant Swedish-speaking populations, such as the Åland Islands and Ostrobothnia.

• National Advocacy: At the national level, the SFP has successfully lobbied for the inclusion of Swedish-language services and considerations in policymaking, ensuring that the needs of Swedish speakers are considered in national decisions.

Community Integration Projects:

• Bilingual Community Centres: The SFP has supported the creation of bilingual community centres that offer social services, language courses, and cultural activities to both Finnish and Swedish speakers. These centres promote integration and social cohesion by bringing together people from different linguistic backgrounds.

• Integration Programs for Immigrants: Recognising the growing diversity in Finland, the SFP has advocated for integration programs that offer language courses in both Finnish and Swedish for immigrants, helping them to integrate into either or both linguistic communities.

Youth Engagement:

• Svenska Ungdom (Swedish Youth): The SFP supports the activities of Svenska Ungdom, the party's youth wing, which engages young people in politics and encourages them to be active in promoting bilingualism and social cohesion. This includes organising youth debates, educational trips, and cultural exchange programs that emphasise the value of Finland’s bilingual heritage.

These tangible actions illustrate how the SFP not only advocates for policies but also actively participates in initiatives that make a real difference in the lives of Swedish-speaking Finns and contribute to the broader goal of social cohesion in Finland.

3.2 Non-Discrimination Ombudsman

The Non-Discrimination Ombudsman is a crucial institution in Finland's efforts to create a society where equality and social cohesion are not just ideals but lived realities. As an independent authority, the Ombudsman is tasked with upholding the principles of non-discrimination and equality as outlined in the Finnish Constitution and various international human rights treaties.

The Ombudsman's work is essential in a multicultural and increasingly diverse society like Finland, where the challenges of integration and inclusion require constant attention. By providing guidance and support to individuals who face discrimination based on race, gender, age, disability, sexual orientation, or other protected characteristics, the Ombudsman plays a vital role in ensuring that all people can live free from discrimination.

This is fundamental to social cohesion, as it fosters an environment where everyone, regardless of their background, can contribute to and benefit from society. Additionally, the Ombudsman monitors the treatment of foreigners, including refugees and asylum seekers, ensuring that their rights are respected and that they are integrated into Finnish society in a way that promotes mutual respect and understanding.

By addressing systemic inequalities and advocating for policy changes where necessary, the Non-Discrimination Ombudsman helps to break down barriers that divide communities, promoting a more cohesive and inclusive society (Stenman, 2024).

3.2.1 The objectives of the Non-Discrimination Ombudsman include:

• Ensuring Compliance with Non-Discrimination Laws: The Ombudsman works to ensure that individuals and institutions comply with Finnish and international non-discrimination laws, fostering a legal environment where discrimination is actively prevented and addressed.

• Providing Guidance and Support: The Ombudsman offers advice and assistance to individuals facing discrimination, helping them understand their rights and navigate the legal frameworks in place to protect them.

• Monitoring and Reporting: The Ombudsman monitors the treatment of all individuals, particularly those belonging to minority groups, refugees, and asylum seekers, to ensure their rights are respected. This involves reporting on issues of concern and recommending policy changes where necessary.

• Promoting Public Awareness: The Ombudsman aims to raise awareness about non-discrimination issues and the importance of equality within society. This includes public education campaigns and initiatives to foster an inclusive culture across all sectors.

• Advocating for Policy Changes: Where systemic inequalities are identified, the Ombudsman advocates for necessary changes in laws and policies to better protect individuals from discrimination and to promote a more inclusive society.

• Collaborating with Stakeholders: The Ombudsman collaborates with various governmental bodies, non-governmental organisations, and international institutions to strengthen the overall framework for non-discrimination and equality in Finland.

3.3 Swedish Assembly in Finland (Folktinget)

The Swedish Assembly in Finland, known as Folktinget, is a unique and influential body that plays a critical role in promoting social cohesion by ensuring the rights and interests of the Swedish-speaking minority are upheld. The Folktinget, or the Swedish Assembly of Finland, is not a parliamentary assembly in the traditional sense. It is an advisory and advocacy body that represents the Swedish-speaking population in Finland.

The main function of the Folktinget is to promote the interests of the Swedish-speaking minority and to ensure their linguistic and cultural rights are protected within Finnish society.

While it does provide a platform for the Swedish-speaking population to voice their concerns and opinions, it does not have legislative power like a parliamentary assembly. Instead, it works closely with the Finnish government, providing recommendations and participating in discussions that affect the Swedish-speaking community.

Elections to the Folktinget are held every four years, coinciding with Finland's municipal elections. The right to vote and stand as a candidate is granted to all Finnish citizens whose native language is Swedish. Voters cast their ballots for candidates from various political parties or independent candidates, like how parliamentary elections are conducted. The number of representatives elected to the Folktinget is determined based on the proportion of Swedish speakers in each municipality. This ensures that the assembly reflects the diverse interests and concerns of the Swedish-speaking community across different regions of Finland. The elected members of the Folktinget then work together to advocate for the rights and interests of their community, engaging in dialogue with Finnish authorities and other stakeholders.

Folktinget's efforts to promote the Swedish language in education, government, and media are not only about protecting a minority language but also about fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion among Swedish speakers. This, in turn, strengthens the social fabric by ensuring that all linguistic groups feel recognised and respected.

Furthermore, Folktinget collaborates closely with various governmental bodies, NGOs, and civil society organisations to promote policies that enhance the cultural and social rights of Swedish speakers. This collaboration helps to build bridges between different linguistic communities, promoting dialogue, understanding, and cooperation. Through its work, Folktinget contributes to a society where diversity is celebrated, and where different cultural groups can coexist peacefully and contribute to the common good (Gestrin, 2024)

3.3.1 The key objectives of Folktinget include:

• Promoting Linguistic Rights: Folktinget works to ensure that the Swedish language maintains its official status and that the linguistic rights of Swedish-speaking Finns are respected and upheld in all areas of public life, including education, government, and media.

• Advocating for Cultural Preservation: Folktinget seeks to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of the Swedish-speaking population by supporting cultural activities, traditions, and the use of the Swedish language in everyday life.

• Enhancing Social Inclusion: By fostering a sense of belonging among Swedish speakers, Folktinget contributes to the social inclusion of this linguistic minority, ensuring that they can fully participate in Finnish society while retaining their linguistic and cultural identity.

• Influencing Policy: Folktinget collaborates with government bodies, NGOs, and other stakeholders to influence policies that affect the Swedish-speaking population, advocating for legislation that supports their cultural and social rights.

• Building Bridges Between Communities: Through dialogue and cooperation, Folktinget aims to bridge gaps between different linguistic communities in Finland, promoting mutual understanding, respect, and peaceful coexistence.

• Providing Representation: Folktinget serves as a voice for the Swedish-speaking population in national discourse, ensuring that their concerns are heard and addressed at all levels of government.

These objectives guide Folktinget's efforts to create a society in Finland where linguistic and cultural diversity is not only protected but celebrated, contributing to the overall social cohesion and common good of the nation.

3.4 Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment

The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment plays a central role in promoting social cohesion in Finland by ensuring that the benefits of economic growth and development are shared across all segments of society. The ministry's mandate includes shaping policies that drive sustainable economic development, creating jobs, and supporting entrepreneurship. By doing so, the ministry addresses one of the key pillars of social cohesion: economic inclusion.

In a country with a strong social welfare system, ensuring that everyone has access to meaningful employment and economic opportunities is essential for reducing inequalities and preventing social exclusion. The ministry's efforts to enhance the skills and employability of the workforce, especially among vulnerable groups such as the unemployed, young people, and immigrants, contribute to a more inclusive labour market.

This inclusivity is crucial for social cohesion, as it ensures that all individuals can contribute to and benefit from economic growth. Moreover, the ministry's focus on promoting entrepreneurship and innovation helps to foster a dynamic economy where new ideas and businesses can thrive. By supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and encouraging innovation, the ministry helps to create a more resilient and diverse economy, which in turn supports social stability and cohesion. Additionally, the ministry's work in industrial policy, energy, and trade ensures that economic development is sustainable and benefits all regions of Finland, reducing regional disparities and promoting a more balanced and cohesive society (Säävälä, 2024).

3.4.1 The key objectives of the Ministry in relation to social inclusion include:

• Promoting Equal Economic Opportunities: The Ministry aims to create an inclusive economy where both Finnish and Swedish-speaking populations, as well as other minority groups, have equal access to employment opportunities, entrepreneurship, and economic resources.

• Enhancing Workforce Skills: By investing in education, training, and skill development programs, the Ministry seeks to improve the employability of all citizens, particularly those from vulnerable groups, including the unemployed, young people, immigrants, and linguistic minorities such as the Swedish-speaking population.

• Supporting Regional Development: The Ministry focuses on reducing regional disparities by promoting economic development across all regions of Finland, ensuring that both Finnish and Swedish-speaking communities benefit from growth and prosperity. This includes targeted support for regions with significant Swedish-speaking populations.

• Encouraging Entrepreneurship and Innovation: The Ministry fosters a dynamic economy by promoting entrepreneurship and innovation across all linguistic and cultural groups. By supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and providing resources for business development, the Ministry helps to create a resilient and diverse economy that reflects Finland’s multicultural fabric.

• Ensuring Sustainable Economic Growth: The Ministry is committed to ensuring that economic development is sustainable and inclusive, benefiting all segments of society. This includes policies that address the unique needs of different linguistic communities, ensuring that economic benefits are widely shared and contribute to social stability.

• Promoting Inclusive Labor Market Policies: The Ministry advocates for labour market policies that are inclusive of all linguistic and cultural groups, including the Swedish-speaking minority. This includes ensuring that language is not a barrier to employment and that all workers are treated equitably regardless of their linguistic background.

3.4.2 Good Relations Programme by The Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment in Uusimaa region

The Good Relations Programme, implemented in Finland, represents a comprehensive effort to strengthen social cohesion and promote positive relations between different population groups at the national, regional, and local levels. This initiative, led by the Uusimaa Centre for Economic Development, Transport, and the Environment (ELY), with funding from the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, aims to address key societal issues such as prejudice, discrimination, and social isolation (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

Objectives and Strategic Framework

The primary objective of the Good Relations Programme is to promote harmonious relations between different population groups, particularly focusing on integration and inclusion. This is achieved through a multi-faceted approach that includes:

• Strengthening Integration Efforts: The programme supports municipalities and ELY Centres in promoting good relations as part of broader integration work. This involves active participation from various stakeholders, including NGOs, educational institutions, and local authorities, to ensure a cohesive and inclusive approach to integration (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Promoting Diversity and Non-Discrimination: A significant aspect of the programme is its focus on promoting diversity and non-discrimination in Finnish society, particularly in the workplace. By enhancing the competence of authorities in anti-racism and equality, the programme seeks to create a more inclusive environment for all citizens (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Enhancing Public Awareness and Security: The programme includes initiatives aimed at raising awareness of racism and its various forms among the population. Additionally, it addresses issues related to hate crimes and hate speech, contributing to a greater sense of security within communities (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Developing Local-Level Good Relations Policies: At the local level, the programme emphasises the development of policies that increase interaction and inclusion. This includes fostering dialogue between population groups and authorities, promoting participation in civic activities, and ensuring that local policies reflect the diverse needs of the community (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

Tools and Activities

The Good Relations Programme employs several tools and activities designed to foster positive relations and support its objectives:

• Data Collection and Local Engagement: The programme conducts extensive data collection through resident feedback sessions held in various languages. These sessions provide valuable insights into the state of relations at the local level, which are then used to inform local decision-making processes. Over 60 data collection events have been organised across Finland, involving a wide range of languages and communities (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Good Relations Forum: An annual event, the Good Relations Forum, serves as a platform for discussing the current state of relations in Finland. The forum brings together stakeholders from different sectors to share experiences, best practices, and strategies for improving social cohesion (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Regional Action Plans: The programme supports the development and implementation of regional action plans to combat racism and promote good relations. These plans involve collaboration between regional and local authorities, NGOs, educational institutions, and businesses, focusing on specific challenges and opportunities within each region (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

• Communication and Partnership Platforms: The programme also emphasises the importance of communication and partnerships. It has established online platforms and LinkedIn groups to facilitate the exchange of information, resources, and best practices among stakeholders (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

Helsinki Samba Carnaval which is celebrated every June  istockphoto.com: Stock photo ID:2161195296

The Good Relations Programme in Finland represents a successful model for promoting social cohesion and inclusivity in a diverse society. Its objectives, tools, and activities provide a structured approach to monitoring and improving social cohesion. The focus on local-level policies and the active involvement of various stakeholders, including NGOs and educational institutions, ensures that efforts to promote social cohesion are comprehensive and sustainable (Beqiri & Päkki, 2024).

3.5 The Finnish education system

The Finnish education system is globally renowned for its high standards and equitable access. The focus on teacher quality, student well-being, and innovative teaching methods has resulted in Finland consistently ranking high in international education assessments (Sahlberg, 2011).

Despite their relatively small size, the Finnish government ensures that Swedish-speaking Finns receive equal access to education in their mother tongue. This prioritization is evident in the existence of institutions such as Åbo Akademi University, which is the largest Swedish-speaking university in Finland, located in Turku. Åbo Akademi offers a comprehensive range of programs in various disciplines, serving as a key institution for higher education among the Swedish-speaking community. Furthermore, Hanken School of Economics, with campuses in Helsinki and Vaasa, offers business education primarily in Swedish, supporting the professional development of this linguistic group.

In addition to these dedicated institutions, many universities across Finland, including the University of Helsinki, provide courses and programs in Swedish to ensure that Swedish-speaking Finns are not disadvantaged in their educational pursuits. This approach highlights Finland’s commitment to linguistic diversity and the preservation of its bilingual heritage. Such measures ensure that the rights of the Swedish-speaking minority are upheld, providing them with equal opportunities in education and professional development. This prioritisation of language equity in education reflects Finland's broader commitment to maintaining a culturally and linguistically inclusive society (McRae, 2000).

The Swedish School of Social Science by Juha Leiviskä, Helsinki, Finland            

www.architectural-review.com/today/the-swedish-school-of-social-science-by-juha-leiviska-helsinki-finland

4 Legal Framework Supporting Integration and Social Cohesion in Finland

Finland's commitment to social cohesion is deeply embedded in its legal framework, which emphasises equality, non-discrimination, and the integration of diverse communities into Finnish society. The country's laws are designed to ensure that all individuals, regardless of their linguistic, cultural, or ethnic background, can fully participate in society and access the same opportunities.

4.1 The Constitution of Finland

At the heart of Finland's legal framework is its Constitution, which guarantees the fundamental rights and freedoms of all citizens and residents. The Constitution enshrines the principles of equality before the law and non-discrimination, which are crucial for fostering social cohesion. Specifically, it mandates that "everyone is equal before the law, and no one shall, without an acceptable reason, be treated differently from other persons on grounds such as sex, age, origin, language, religion, conviction, opinion, health, disability, or other reason that concerns his or her person" (Constitution of Finland, Section 6).

This constitutional commitment to equality lays the foundation for the legal protections and policies that support the integration of minorities, including Swedish-speaking Finns and immigrant communities, into the broader society.

4.2 The Language Act

One of the most significant legal instruments supporting integration and social cohesion in Finland is the Language Act (423/2003). This act establishes Finnish and Swedish as the two national languages of Finland and guarantees the right of individuals to use either language in dealings with public authorities. The Language Act is particularly important for ensuring that Swedish-speaking Finns can access services in their mother tongue, thereby reinforcing their inclusion in society. (Saukkonen, 2024)

The act also requires public authorities to take the necessary measures to ensure that individuals can use their preferred language in official contexts. This legal provision promotes bilingualism and mutual respect between the Finnish- and Swedish-speaking populations, which is a cornerstone of social cohesion in Finland. (Saukkonen, 2024)

4.3 The Non-Discrimination Act

The Non-Discrimination Act (1325/2014) is another critical piece of legislation that supports social cohesion in Finland. This act prohibits discrimination on various grounds, including ethnicity, religion, language, disability, and sexual orientation. It applies to both public and private sectors, covering areas such as employment, education, social services, and access to goods and services.

Under the Non-Discrimination Act, all public authorities are required to promote equality in their activities, and employers must take steps to prevent discrimination in the workplace. The act also establishes the role of the Non-Discrimination Ombudsman, who is tasked with monitoring compliance with the law, providing guidance to individuals facing discrimination, and advocating for policy changes where necessary. This legal framework is essential for creating an environment where all individuals can contribute to society without fear of exclusion or marginalisation. (Stenman, 2024).

4.4 The Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers

The Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers (1386/2010) outlines the measures to be taken by authorities to support the integration of immigrants into Finnish society. This includes providing language courses, education, and employment services tailored to the needs of immigrants. The act emphasises the importance of ensuring that immigrants have the necessary skills and opportunities to participate fully in Finnish society, thereby promoting social cohesion.

The act also mandates the creation of individual integration plans for immigrants, which are designed to help them navigate Finnish society and access the services they need. These plans are developed in collaboration with the immigrants themselves, ensuring that their specific needs and aspirations are taken into account. (Faurie, & Juvonen, 2024)

4.5 The Equality Act

The Equality Act (609/1986) complements the Non-Discrimination Act by specifically addressing gender equality. It requires that men and women be treated equally in all areas of life, including employment, education, and access to services. The act also mandates that public authorities actively promote gender equality in their activities and policies. By fostering equality between genders, the Equality Act contributes to a more cohesive society where all individuals can participate on an equal footing.

4.6 The Sámi Language Act

In addition to the Language Act, Finland has also enacted the Sámi Language Act (1086/2003) to protect and promote the Sámi languages, which are the languages of the indigenous Sámi people in Finland. The act guarantees the right of Sámi people to use their languages in dealings with public authorities and ensures that services are available to them in their mother tongue. This legal protection is vital for preserving the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Sámi people and ensuring their full participation in Finnish society. (Faurie, & Juvonen, 2024)

4.7 Implementation and Monitoring

The implementation of these laws is closely monitored by various governmental bodies, including the Non-Discrimination Ombudsman, the Chancellor of Justice, and the Parliamentary Ombudsman. These institutions ensure that public authorities and private entities comply with the legal requirements, and they provide avenues for individuals to seek redress if their rights are violated.

In addition to legal enforcement, Finland places a strong emphasis on public awareness and education to ensure that all citizens understand their rights and the importance of social cohesion. Government campaigns, educational programs, and public dialogues are regularly conducted to promote the values of equality, non-discrimination, and integration.

5 The Good Relations project: Combatting forms of intolerance by promoting good relations between people from different backgrounds

The Good Relations in Finland project aims to foster positive interactions between different population groups by implementing a model of good relations among central government authorities, local councillors, local government employees, and third sector actors.

This project is grounded in the Good Relations Measurement Framework developed in the United Kingdom, which encompasses four key areas: attitudes, personal security, interaction with others, and participation and influence. These areas serve as both metrics and influences on the state of intergroup relations.

Launched in 2016, the Trust project initially focused on the operating environment of reception centres in seven pilot locations. Project staff visited these locations to provide training, disseminate information, and lead discussions on the importance of good relations for peaceful coexistence and conflict prevention.

In its second phase, the project worked to promote the good relations model among various stakeholders. Efforts were made to simplify the model by creating practical tools and clarifying the message about good relations. While the model is applicable to all population groups, the Trust project particularly emphasised factors affecting immigrant integration.

Building on the EU-funded Good Relations project, which introduced the good relations model to Finland, the Trust project is implemented by the Ministry of Justice and primarily funded by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment.

Figure 3: The Ministry of Justice, 2024

6 Are the measures being taken proving to be effective?

Finland's linguistic duality is deeply rooted in the country’s legal framework and societal norms, ensuring equitable rights and cultural preservation for both Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking citizens. This section evaluates the effectiveness of various measures implemented to uphold these linguistic rights, focusing on public administration, education, cultural activities, media representation, judicial processes, and the protection of minority languages.

The effectiveness of the measures taken to ensure social cohesion and protect the rights of both Swedish-speaking and Finnish-speaking populations in Finland can be assessed from multiple perspectives: legal compliance, societal integration, and public perception.

Legal Compliance and Enforcement: The implementation of the Language Act and other legal frameworks designed to protect linguistic rights has generally been successful. Public authorities in bilingual regions largely comply with the requirements to offer services in both Finnish and Swedish, ensuring that citizens can access government services in their preferred language. The Non-Discrimination Ombudsman and Folktinget play critical roles in monitoring this compliance, advocating for necessary policy adjustments, and addressing any disparities that arise. This legal infrastructure has been instrumental in preventing systemic discrimination against linguistic minorities, indicating that the measures are effective in upholding linguistic equality. That said, the provisions in law and execution in practice do not always match, with complaints of non-compliance regularly raised, requiring ongoing improvement, monitoring and nurturing. The institutions referred to above play a crucial role in this regard (Stenman, 2024; Gestrin, 2024).

Social and Cultural Integration: The policies promoting bilingual education, cultural festivals, and media representation have also proven effective in fostering mutual understanding and respect between the two language groups. Bilingual education programs and Swedish-language schools help cultivate proficiency in both languages from an early age, contributing to a society where linguistic diversity is normalised. Cultural initiatives such as Svenska Dagen and support for Swedish-language media further reinforce the visibility and vitality of the Swedish language. These efforts have largely been successful in maintaining a strong sense of identity and belonging among Swedish speakers while promoting social cohesion (Ollikainen, 2024).

Public Perception and Social Harmony: Public perception of bilingualism in Finland is generally positive, with most citizens recognisng the value of preserving both languages. The active role of the Swedish People's Party of Finland (SFP) in advocating for the rights of Swedish speakers and promoting social equality has contributed to a stable and harmonious society. Additionally, community integration projects and youth engagement initiatives have helped bridge gaps between different linguistic groups, further enhancing social cohesion (Ollikainen, 2024; Säävälä, 2024).

However, challenges remain, particularly in ensuring that these measures are uniformly effective across all regions and among all segments of the population. In some areas, especially where the Swedish-speaking population is smaller, there may be less availability of services in Swedish, leading to feelings of marginalisation. Moreover, the increasing diversity in Finland, with more immigrants and non-native speakers, adds complexity to the bilingual framework, requiring ongoing adaptation and responsive policies (Beqhiri & Päkki, 2024).

7 Lessons South Africa Can Learn from Finland's Social Cohesion Measures and recommendations and conclusion

The central lessons learned from this study are that in building social cohesion, language diversity is to be embraced and nurtured to secure a sense of belonging, and that, if equitably applied, the development of separate institutions, such as schools and universities for the various language (and/or cultural) groups does not have to equate to the preservation of privilege. Rather, the absence of a perceived neutralisation of one group over the other can serve to foster social cohesion. And in the South African context, it can serve to spur the further development of the various indigenous languages to higher scientific levels.

A further principal lesson is that efforts to promote social cohesion requires a sustained effort which needs to be properly resourced. Paying lip service to the promotion of social cohesion which is not backed-up in action and deed, is of little value to the cause, and may even serve to deepen division.

These central lessons are further elaborated on hereunder.

• Importance of Sustained and Ongoing Efforts

One of the most crucial lessons from Finland’s approach to fostering social cohesion is the emphasis on sustained and ongoing efforts. The Good Relations Programme in Finland is a prime example, demonstrating the importance of continuous support for municipalities and various stakeholders in promoting good relations and integration across the country (Beqhiri & Päkki, 2024). This initiative underscores that social cohesion cannot be achieved through short-term or sporadic efforts; it must be a long-term commitment embedded in the governance structures at all levels (Beqhiri & Päkki, 2024).

In South Africa, this lesson is particularly relevant. While there are existing structures aimed at promoting social cohesion, such as the Chapter 9 institutions, these need to be better resourced and supported to function effectively over the long term. The Chapter 9 institutions, which include the Human Rights Commission, the Commission for Gender Equality, the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities, and the Public Protector, are vital in upholding the constitutional values of equality, non-discrimination, and social justice. However, unlike Finland, where an Ombudsperson oversees non-discrimination efforts, South Africa does not necessarily need to establish a similar office. Instead, the focus should be on strengthening the capacity and effectiveness of the Chapter 9 institutions.

Proper resourcing of these institutions is essential to ensure they can carry out their mandates fully, including oversight, advocacy, and the promotion of social cohesion across different communities. By ensuring that these bodies are adequately funded and staffed, South Africa can create a more robust framework for sustaining social cohesion initiatives, ensuring that they are not only implemented but maintained and adapted over time to meet changing social dynamics.

• Community Representation and Language Diversity

Finland's Swedish Assembly (Folktinget) provides a unique model for representing the Swedish-speaking minority, ensuring their linguistic and cultural rights are preserved and respected (Gestrin, 2024). This assembly plays a critical role in advocating for the rights of the Swedish-speaking population and ensuring their inclusion in the broader Finnish society. For South Africa, a country with 11 official languages and even more linguistic diversity, creating an assembly for each language group, similar to the Folktinget, is not practical. However, the underlying principle of dedicated representation can and should be adapted.

In the South African context, the Pan-South African Language Board (PanSALB) could be empowered and restructured to function more effectively as a body that represents and advocates for the diverse linguistic communities within the country. Consideration should also be given to strengthening the legitimacy of PanSALB by broadening the appointment processes of PanSALB which may include an enhanced democratic process in the selection and appointment of the Board.

By enhancing the role and capacity of PanSALB, South Africa can ensure that all linguistic communities have a platform through which they can voice their concerns and contribute to national policy-making processes.

Moreover, within the parliamentary framework, specific linguistic and/or cultural work teams could be established, comprising representatives from the specific language/cultural groups, and drawn from across the political parties.  These teams would work on issues related to language preservation, cultural exchange, and policy advocacy.

This approach would ensure that the needs and perspectives of all linguistic communities are considered in legislative processes, fostering a more inclusive national dialogue.

Such efforts would not only strengthen the representation of South Africa’s diverse languages but also promote a sense of belonging and respect for linguistic diversity, which is essential for building a cohesive society.

• Adapting the Good Relations Programme for South Africa

The Good Relations Programme stands out as the central feedback and lesson learned from Finland's efforts in fostering social cohesion. The programme’s structured and multi-faceted approach, which includes data collection, local engagement, regional action plans, and continuous communication, provides a comprehensive framework that South Africa could adapt to its unique context.

In Finland, the Good Relations Programme has been successful in promoting harmonious relations between different population groups by addressing issues such as prejudice, discrimination, and social isolation at multiple levels of society (Beqhiri & Päkki, 2024). In South Africa, a similar programme could be implemented at the municipal level, tailored to address the specific challenges faced by different regions. This would involve several key components:

• Data Collection and Local Engagement: Like Finland, South Africa could conduct regular surveys and community discussions to gather insights into the state of social cohesion and identify key issues affecting different communities. This data-driven approach would allow for targeted interventions that address the specific needs of each region.

• Regional Action Plans: Developing customised action plans for each municipality is crucial. These plans should focus on addressing local challenges such as racial tensions, language barriers, and economic disparities. By involving local stakeholders, including community leaders, NGOs, and local government officials, these action plans can be tailored to the unique needs of each community.

• Communication and Partnerships: Establishing platforms for ongoing dialogue between different communities, local authorities, and civil society organisations is essential. These platforms would facilitate the exchange of ideas, promote understanding, and foster cooperation among diverse groups. In Finland, communication and partnerships are key components of the Good Relations Programme, and South Africa could benefit from adopting a similar approach to enhance social cohesion at the local level.

Furthermore, the Good Relations Programme's emphasis on local-level policies and the active involvement of various stakeholders, including NGOs, educational institutions, and community groups, is a model that South Africa could replicate (Beqhiri & Päkki, 2024). By ensuring that social cohesion efforts are rooted in the local context and involve all relevant stakeholders, South Africa can create a more inclusive and resilient society.

The lessons from Finland's approach to social cohesion offer valuable insights for South Africa as it seeks to build a more united and inclusive society. By focusing on sustained and ongoing initiatives, strengthening community representation, particularly in the context of language diversity, and adapting the Good Relations Programme to fit South Africa’s unique context, the country can make significant strides in enhancing social cohesion.

• Importance of mother tongue education

Not only does evidence suggests that to be taught in and to learn in one’s mother tongue, a stronger foundation for a child's cognitive development is established, but so too, communication skills are improved, and it helps a child to create an emotional connection with their learning environment (Ahmed, 2024). Moreover, a concerted effort to implement mother tongue education promotes language maintenance and development. And, specifically relevant to this study on social cohesion, it creates a sense of belonging within society.

Within the South African context, at the school level, the tension between universal accessibility to quality education and the maintenance of mother education, remains contested. And at the tertiary level, the feasibility to be taught in one’s mother tongue, is fast evaporating.

It is therefore recommended that, in order to ensure the constitutional right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions and the right to use their language of choice (RSA, 1996),  it is recommended that a further study be undertaken by public policymakers into best practices in other multi-lingual countries where mother tongue education at both school and at tertiary level is guaranteed and efficiently implemented.

These measures will require a long-term commitment, adequate resources, and a willingness to adapt to South Africa’s specific challenges. However, the potential benefits for national unity, stability, and prosperity make these efforts essential for the future of the country. By learning from Finland's successes, South Africa can develop its own strategies to foster a more cohesive and harmonious society.

Conclusion

The study into the management of Finland’s diverse communities has once again shown that social cohesion is a vital ingredient in ensuring stable and flourishing communities. Moreover, it is an important economic imperative, in that when social cohesion is not at the optimal level, space is provided for divisive conflict, which in turn impacts business and investment confidence.

The Finnish model also suggest that in accepting and embracing language and/or cultural diversity, much is done to build a sense of community in which all citizens feel valued and at home. It is when all citizens feel valued and at home, that they function most effectively as a cohesive and productive society.

But social cohesion does not fall out of the sky. A clear conclusion to be drawn from the Finnish model is that it requires an ongoing and sustained effort; and that adequate resources need to be made available to fund it. In comparison, it is clear that South Africa is not sufficiently invested in this regard.

Social justice is best served when all in society feel invested and included. South Africa needs to do much more than what the current efforts and allocation of resources would suggest.

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This paper is published jointly by

the  Inclusive Society Institute and

School of Public Leadership, Stellenbosch University

                     www.inclusivesociety.org.za            www.sun.ac.za/english/faculty/economy/sp